Methodological Approaches to Investigative Journalism and Their Impact on Enhancing Its Quality

Abstract

This study examines methodological approaches in investigative journalism and their intersections with scientific research methods, exploring how these frameworks can be employed to enhance the quality of investigative reporting. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the methodological tools used in this field by addressing a central research question: What is the most effective methodology for producing high-quality investigative journalism, and how does it contribute to the development of journalistic practice?

Drawing on case studies and practical examples, the study illustrates how scientific methods can be adapted to improve the accuracy and depth of information gathering and analysis in investigative work. It highlights the ways in which research methodologies can guide the investigative process and enrich its outcomes. The study also addresses the key challenges faced by investigative journalists and offers a holistic framework for overcoming these obstacles—ultimately aimed at strengthening the practice of investigative journalism and reinforcing standards of credibility and transparency.

Introduction

The press plays a fundamental role in the structure of contemporary society as a core practice that upholds the principles of transparency and accountability and assumes the function of “counter-power” by exercising oversight over institutions and uncovering facts for the public. Through this crucial role, journalism constitutes a cornerstone in the construction of democratic systems, as it provides citizens with access to reliable information about developments within decision-making centres, enabling them to make informed choices. This proposition also reinforces the principle that independent journalism is a prerequisite for achieving democratic goals related to the preservation and continued progress of civilisation. Genuine democracy depends on an informed citizenry, which in turn requires high-quality media (1) and the widest possible access to its content, (2) fostering citizens’ active participation in public life.

Investigative journalism lies at the heart of this media function. It represents the most demanding and valuable journalistic genre due to the meticulous effort and systematic work it requires to uncover hidden facts that are deliberately concealed by certain parties. The success of investigative reporting is closely linked to its strict adherence to scientific approaches based on in-depth research and field investigation, enabling journalists to produce content grounded in verified facts. This form of journalism requires rigorous commitment to established methodologies in order to achieve high levels of accuracy and objectivity. Investigative reporting is based on thorough research into sources, the extraction of concealed information, the verification and documentation of data, and the construction of sound hypotheses supported by strong evidence.

Within this context, the development and formulation of hypotheses in investigative journalism constitute a particular challenge, as hypotheses serve as a fundamental cognitive and organisational tool that guides the course of the investigation and identifies the core questions the journalist seeks to answer. Accordingly, the success of an investigation depends on the journalist’s ability to formulate a well-constructed and testable hypothesis, which in turn requires a deep understanding of methodological approaches appropriate to the nature and objectives of the investigation.

This study seeks to explore the intersections between scientific approaches and investigative journalism, and to examine ways of employing them to improve the quality of investigative practice. By reviewing the various approaches used by investigative journalists, the study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the methodologies used in this field, demonstrate how they can be applied to achieve the highest levels of accuracy and depth in information collection and analysis, and clarify the distinctions these approaches create in guiding investigations and enriching their results.

This study also aims to examine the challenges facing investigative journalists and present a comprehensive vision for overcoming these obstacles, thereby enhancing journalistic efficiency and consolidating standards of credibility and transparency in investigative work.

1. Methodology and definitions

Research problem

This study examines the foundations of investigative journalism and the role of scientific methodology in achieving comprehensive quality, through the following central research question: What is the most appropriate methodology in investigative journalism for achieving high-quality results? What is its impact on the development of journalistic practice?

This central question arises from a number of professional and ethical issues, including:

• How can investigative journalists balance accuracy in data collection and analysis with adherence to ethical and professional standards?
• What is the impact of adopting diverse methodological approaches on the credibility and effectiveness of investigative reporting?
• How can a strong and reliable hypothesis be formulated for investigative reporting?

Research objectives

This study seeks to highlight the importance of methodological rigour in investigative journalism and the role of scientific methodology in achieving high-quality outcomes. These objectives can be summarised as follows:

• To analyse the most significant approaches used in investigative journalism and examine the relationship between investigative quality and the methodologies applied in hypothesis formulation and the collection and analysis of information.
• To identify the challenges journalists face in applying investigative methodologies and explore ways to overcome them.
• To propose recommendations for improving investigative journalism practices, thereby strengthening their role in promoting transparency and accountability.

The importance of this study also stems from the urgent need to develop investigative journalism practices in response to rapid transformations in the media landscape and ongoing technological advances. It seeks to present a systematic framework that enhances the accuracy and credibility of investigative reporting, thereby reinforcing its role as an effective instrument of oversight in society.

Methodological strategy

This study adopts a composite methodological strategy that combines several approaches to address the various dimensions of the research problem, including:

• The descriptive approach, which presents foundational concepts and terminology and provides a comprehensive overview of the importance, characteristics and methods of investigative journalism.
• The analytical approach, which is used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of various investigative methodologies and assess their impact on result quality and informational accuracy.
• The comparative approach, which examines investigative journalism methods alongside scientific research methods, focusing on information-gathering techniques, analytical procedures, and their impact on credibility and effectiveness. This analysis helps identify the most effective methodologies for producing accurate and comprehensive results and clarifies their contribution to the development of investigative practice.

Together, these approaches enable the researcher to present an integrated vision for improving and enhancing the efficiency of investigative practices, contributing to the enrichment of investigative journalism and the development of its tools in response to changes in the media environment and increasing public expectations regarding transparency and accountability.

Definition of Investigative Journalism

Investigative journalism is considered one of the most refined journalistic genres. (3) It relies on in-depth research and systematic investigation in the collection and analysis of information, with the aim of uncovering hidden facts or unknown dimensions of issues of public interest. It often addresses sensitive topics related to corruption, unethical practices, crime, human rights violations, and other issues that may threaten social stability. (4)

Investigative journalism differs from other journalistic forms in that it relies on material independently collected by the journalist, a practice sometimes referred to as “enterprise journalism”. (5)

It does not depend on information readily available through open sources or provided by third parties but instead seeks to gather diverse perspectives and analyses related to the issue under investigation, thereby enhancing the comprehensiveness and depth of coverage.

This approach renders investigative journalism a complex field that requires rigorous data analysis and often necessitates close collaboration between journalists and experts in fields such as law, economics and political science, to produce credible and well-substantiated investigations. Investigative journalism is characterised by its systematic, evidence-based, document-oriented and multi-source approach. Its primary objective is not merely to convey information, but also to draw public attention to issues that directly affect society, while proposing solutions and encouraging positive change. This form of journalism also requires specialised skills in evidence collection and analysis, as well as strict adherence to ethical standards, best professional practices, and respect for individual privacy throughout the investigative process.

The definition of investigative journalism is shaped by its expected roles, the experiences of its practitioners, and the nature and requirements of the investigative process. While definitions may vary, they are complementary in pursuing the primary objective of investigative journalism: the disclosure of important information that has been concealed. (6) This objective helps society understand critical issues and encourages reform and change.

According to the Global Investigative Journalism Network, investigative journalism is “systematic, in-depth, and original research and reporting, often involving the unearthing of secrets…its practice often involves heavy use of public records and data, with a focus on social justice and accountability.” (7)

On the other hand, Article 19, an international human rights organisation, cites author Lucinda Fleeson, who argued that investigative journalism “is not limited to exposing corruption and criminal activity, but also includes stories that explain how systems work or fail, or construct complex narratives.” (8)

According to the Al Jazeera Media Institute’s Investigative Journalism Handbook, investigative journalism “should uncover new facts about a single particular issue or problem. An investigation should be original and should break new ground for the audience. It should go beyond mere fact-checking and provide ‘clear, direct and irrefutable evidence with no trace of ambiguity’.” (9)

The Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ) believes that this type of journalism is based on documenting information and revealing facts, in a systematic and objective way, with the aim of bringing about change that serves the public interest. (10)

In general, investigative journalism seeks transparency through an independent journalistic effort to collect and accurately analyse evidence and information from multiple sources, and to reach results that draw public attention to vital issues deserving of investigation and public debate, with the aim of stimulating positive change in the public interest.

Differences Between Investigative Journalism and Traditional Journalism

Although the objectives of investigative journalism do not fundamentally differ from those of public journalism, in terms of providing citizens with the information necessary to make informed decisions about their lives, societies and governments, (11) and although their tools may appear similar at first glance, (12) investigative journalism differs from traditional journalism in several essential aspects related to objectives, methods and information-gathering practices.

Traditional journalism, or routine news reporting, is primarily concerned with the direct and rapid transmission of news and information. It conveys facts as they appear, without extensive exploration of underlying dimensions, which can be likened to observing a mountain only from its visible surface. In contrast, investigative journalism, often referred to as in-depth reporting, seeks to uncover hidden facts and expose complex issues that require prolonged examination in order to promote transparency and accountability. It does not settle for surface-level appearances but focuses on what lies beneath, thereby acquiring an investigative character that demands advanced analytical and research skills.

Whereas traditional journalism often relies on official or readily available sources, such as press releases and public statements, enabling rapid dissemination with limited depth, investigative journalism employs deeper research techniques. These include examining public records, interviewing undisclosed or confidential sources, and gathering corroborating evidence, allowing for the revelation of precise details and the production of comprehensive investigations that go beyond information accessible to the general public.

Media content in traditional journalism is typically produced under pressure to meet real-time, daily or periodic publication requirements, with priority given to speed. Investigative journalism, by contrast, requires significantly more time and effort. Investigations may extend over weeks, months or even years, given the necessity of systematically collecting, verifying and analysing evidence to ensure the delivery of reliable content and clarify ambiguous dimensions for the public.

The comparison between traditional and investigative journalism also reveals stylistic differences. Traditional journalism is characterised by a direct and objective presentation that prioritises clarity and immediacy over depth, facilitating rapid consumption of news. Investigative journalism, on the other hand, follows a complex methodological framework that involves hypothesis formulation, testing and reliance on multiple sources, ultimately producing precise and comprehensive results. This approach grants investigative journalism a profound analytical dimension, as journalists seek to present an integrated disclosure of obscured or ambiguous information.

The distinction between the two fields also extends to their impact on the public. Traditional journalism aims to inform the public immediately by presenting events as they occur, without delving into their deeper implications, making it a fast and accessible mode of information. Investigative journalism seeks to exert a deeper influence by providing insights into underlying issues, stimulating public debate, encouraging critical thinking, and promoting reform and social change, thereby acting as a driving force for transparency and accountability.

Table 1: Differences Between Investigative and Traditional Journalism

2. The Intersections of Scientific Approaches with Investigative Journalism

Investigative Journalism and the Use of the Scientific Method

The term “method” is derived from the French word méthode, which in turn originates from a Greek root meaning “path” or “approach” leading toward a specific purpose. This concept did not acquire its widely recognised epistemological meaning, as a set of rules governing access to scientific truth, until the early European Renaissance, when logicians devoted particular attention to the concept of method as a component of logical reasoning. This intellectual interest gradually evolved, until the term came to denote its contemporary meaning, namely a structured way of uncovering truth through a set of rules that regulate cognitive processes and direct them toward specific results. (13)

The scientific method is defined as the art of organising ideas in a coherent and logical manner, either for the purpose of discovering new knowledge or for demonstrating established facts to others. (14)

Research steps are carefully coordinated, and research tools are clearly defined to ensure the production of valid and reliable knowledge.

Within the field of investigative journalism, the scientific method represents a systematic and continuous path aimed at approaching and uncovering the truth. It connects journalistic investigative mechanisms with rational principles derived from scientific methodologies. Investigative reporting seeks to track, verify and validate information, and subsequently present it to the public with a high degree of objectivity and credibility, a practice commonly referred to within journalistic circles as “transferring facts” to the public.

Nevertheless, there is no single unified methodological framework capable of addressing all investigative phenomena. Investigative approaches vary according to the diversity of issues, the nature of the facts involved, and the methods by which information is concealed or distorted. This diversity necessitates the use of multiple tools and methodologies drawn from different scientific approaches.

In their book, The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public Should Expect, Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel emphasise that investigative journalism requires methodological flexibility, enabling journalists to employ appropriate scientific tools in accordance with the nature of the facts and the objectives of disclosure. (15)

Among the most prominent scientific approaches that investigative journalists draw upon is the descriptive approach, which relies on comprehensive and accurate collection and description of data and information. (16) This approach is particularly useful when monitoring actual conditions on the ground or when analysing statistics and numerical data to construct an overall picture of an issue. The historical approach is employed when investigating issues with extended temporal dimensions or when examining social phenomena rooted in past events, such as conflicts or wars. (17)

This approach involves reviewing archival records and historical documents and comparing them with contemporary testimonies, thereby facilitating an understanding of the contexts and trajectories that have shaped present realities.

The inferential approach emerges when journalists begin with general hypotheses regarding the existence of corruption or violations and subsequently search for concrete evidence to substantiate these assumptions. Conversely, the inductive approach is particularly suited to investigations based on fragmented or scattered data, where journalists assemble disparate elements to derive broader conclusions or hypotheses. The analytical approach is also employed in cases that require the decomposition of complex phenomena into constituent elements and the examination of their interactions, whether through quantitative data analysis or the study of institutional structures and relational networks. This approach may require advanced data analysis techniques to reveal underlying patterns and future implications. (18)

Despite the strong connection between investigative journalism and the scientific method, fundamental differences remain between the work of investigative journalists and academic researchers. (19)

Journalistic practice often necessitates flexibility and confidentiality in dealing with sources to ensure their protection. Journalists are also required to condense content to fit media formats and time constraints. Moreover, investigative reporting relies more heavily on direct fieldwork and interaction with actors, whereas scientific research demands a higher degree of procedural rigour and comprehensive documentation, enabling replication or verification by other researchers.

The multiplicity of methodologies responds to the need for investigative journalism to address issues that vary in context, involved actors, available data and the nature of concealed information. Political investigations often benefit from combining historical and analytical approaches to trace origins and monitor transformations. Social investigations typically rely on interviews and field observation within an inductive framework. Economic and financial investigations require complex analytical models that integrate quantitative and qualitative methods.

The integration of multiple approaches enhances the credibility of findings and provides a comprehensive understanding of the subject, as each methodology compensates for potential limitations inherent in others. Ultimately, the objective of investigative journalism, like that of scientific research, remains the attainment of the highest possible level of accuracy and objectivity in revealing facts, despite differences in procedures, presentation formats and target audiences.

Accordingly, methodological plurality in investigative journalism is a practical necessity driven by the diversity of issues addressed. When investigative journalists pose their central question, namely, how to reach the truth in a given case, they encounter a range of methodological options from which they must select those most appropriate to their subject, data and available resources. Their ultimate aim is twofold: to achieve the highest degree of objectivity, and to serve public interest by uncovering facts that might otherwise remain obscured without investigative effort.

The Methodology of Investigative Journalism

The methodological process of investigative journalism consists of a series of sequential stages that enable journalists to access accurate and reliable facts related to the issues under investigation. The following represents the most important stages of this process.

First: Identifying the problem or issue

The investigative process begins with the identification of the subject matter, which must be of significant public interest. The problem should be clearly and precisely formulated in a single sentence that includes the perpetrator or responsible party, the victim or affected party, and the scope or magnitude of the problem. This step is comparable to problem identification in scientific research, which is defined as “a subject surrounded by ambiguity or a phenomenon in need of interpretation”. (20) It may also be understood as a question requiring explanation, the clarification of its dimensions, and the identification of its variables.

The importance of problem identification lies in its role as the primary and specific driver of all subsequent investigative stages. (21) The accuracy of its formulation directly influences the direction of the investigation and determines its scope. Identifying and defining the dimensions of a problem is often more challenging than proposing solutions, as this step precisely maps the investigative trajectory and establishes the boundaries of inquiry.

Second: Determining the hypothesis

Following the accurate formulation of the problem, the investigator proceeds to articulate the issue through a set of questions and hypotheses that are measurable and subject to scrutiny. These hypotheses guide the information-gathering process and assist in characterising the phenomenon or event under investigation. In investigative journalism, this stage is referred to as “hypothesis formulation”.

In scientific research, a hypothesis is defined as an interpretation of a presumed relationship between two or more variables, typically expressed in testable and verifiable terms, (22) or formulated as conditional statements of a deductive or speculative nature. In journalistic practice, however, a hypothesis is viewed as a proposed explanation of a problematic issue that requires investigation, research and documentation. (23)

Article 19 defines a hypothesis as a proposed explanation of a phenomenon or a logical proposition linking multiple phenomena, enabling investigative journalists to construct hypotheses that regulate the course of investigation and determine its directions in accordance with a structured scientific methodology.

Based on these definitions, the hypothesis in investigative journalism can be understood as a narrative that requires systematic testing. (24) It includes a clear definition of the problem, identification of potential responsible parties, underlying causes and anticipated consequences. Hypothesis formulation extends beyond establishing relationships between variables to constructing an integrated narrative framework that organises the elements of the investigative story. It functions as a guiding focus for the research process and represents a “systematic assumption” that directs the journalist toward specific angles of inquiry, enhances the testing of potential causal links, and ultimately leads to evidence-based conclusions that present the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Table 2: Models for the Formulation of Hypotheses in Investigative Journalism

Third: Determining the hypothesis provisions and formulating questions

Once the hypothesis has been formulated, the next stage involves breaking it down into specific components and developing a detailed set of questions to guide the investigation. This process aims to analyse the hypothesis by identifying its key elements, enabling the journalist to determine relevant actors, causes and effects, as well as to explore contextual factors surrounding each component, thereby facilitating accurate and reliable answers.

Formulating detailed questions at the outset of an investigation is a critical methodological tool for ensuring systematic access to truth. It contributes to organising ideas, selecting appropriate sources, and identifying suitable research instruments. Moreover, dismantling the hypothesis into precise components and investigative questions enhances the effectiveness of investigative procedures, as it increases the likelihood of uncovering intersecting relationships among the various factors influencing the case. This approach ultimately supports the development of well-founded conclusions, strengthens investigative quality, and enhances credibility and impact.

Table 3: Model of Hypothesis and Investigative Questions

Fourth: Identifying sources and collecting information

After the hypothesis has been formulated, its components defined, and detailed questions established, the next stage involves identifying the sources that will be used to collect the information necessary for the investigation. This stage is central to investigative methodology, as it ensures access to accurate, diverse and verifiable data that enables journalists to construct a comprehensive understanding of the issue under study.

Source identification involves selecting both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include eyewitness testimonies, direct interviews, field observations, official documents and data obtained from public or private institutions. Secondary sources consist of previous studies, published reports, academic research and relevant media materials. The careful selection of sources contributes to achieving balance and comprehensiveness in the investigation and facilitates verification through comparison and cross-referencing.

The use of multiple research tools, such as interviews, document analysis and direct observation, enables the journalist to approach the issue from different perspectives and enhances the reliability of findings. During this stage, it is essential to distinguish between data and information. Data are defined as raw, unprocessed facts that are often fragmented and presented without interpretation or bias. (25) In their initial form, data consist of numbers, symbols or isolated observations that lack inherent meaning (26). Their value emerges only after they are processed and organised.

Information, by contrast, refers to data that has been processed, structured and contextualised. (27) Information appears in the form of coherent statements, reports or visual representations, such as charts and tables, and can be directly used in analysis and decision-making. Information provides interpretive value and deeper understanding, enabling the identification of patterns and the formulation of conclusions.

Fifth: Proof of the hypothesis

Substantiating the investigative hypothesis requires the application of multiple verification mechanisms that enhance the credibility and accuracy of findings. These mechanisms include cross-checking testimonies from primary sources, particularly eyewitnesses, whose accounts are used to confirm factual details. The journalist’s direct engagement with the field also contributes to contextual understanding by allowing firsthand observation of events or conditions under investigation.

Additional verification tools include the use of specialised techniques, such as covert observation of when information is otherwise inaccessible, as well as reliance on studies, reports and statistical data that provide a scientific foundation for the investigation. Surveys and questionnaires may be employed to capture public perceptions or attitudes related to the issue, (28) while expert opinions support analysis by offering specialised insight into technical or institutional dimensions of the subject.

In certain cases, secret audio or video recordings may be used to ensure the accuracy of information obtained from private sources, subject to ethical and legal constraints. The method of reconstruction is also employed to objectively reassemble events, enabling clarification of complex sequences and validation of the hypothesis. Together, these mechanisms strengthen the evidentiary basis of investigative reporting and support the production of reliable and well-substantiated conclusions.

Sixth: Editing the investigative story

Editing represents the final stage of investigative work and involves constructing an integrated narrative that combines factual rigour with coherent storytelling.

This stage seeks to achieve two complementary objectives: the transmission of knowledge and the effective presentation of information. Characters constitute a central component of the investigative story and include both principal and secondary figures whose actions drive the narrative. These characters must be presented with clear social and psychological dimensions to facilitate reader engagement and comprehension of motivations and consequences.

Context is another essential element in shaping the investigative narrative. It situates events within their temporal and spatial frameworks and explains the circumstances surrounding them, thereby enabling the reader to understand the relationships between actors and developments. Contextualisation enhances credibility by clarifying the factors that generate conflict and by grounding the narrative in objective conditions.

Conflict represents the core of the investigative story, as it generates tension and movement through interactions among individuals, institutions or interests. Conflict may manifest externally, through confrontation between actors, or internally, through moral or psychological struggles. The gradual development of conflict through escalating challenges contributes to narrative coherence, sustains reader attention and reinforces the analytical depth of the investigation.

The conclusion constitutes the resolution of the investigative narrative. It presents the outcomes of the investigation, addresses the questions raised throughout the story, clarifies the consequences for the actors involved, and outlines potential future implications. A well-constructed conclusion provides narrative closure while reinforcing the dual purpose of investigative journalism, namely the delivery of verified knowledge and the articulation of broader societal implications.

3. Methodological Challenges in Investigative Journalism

Investigative journalism remains a specialised journalistic practice grounded in rigorous documentation and in-depth research, requiring strict adherence to scientific and professional methodologies. While journalistic work in general is susceptible to error, mistakes in investigative journalism can have particularly serious consequences.

Investigative journalists are therefore required to apply research methodologies with precision and consistency, regardless of the difficulties encountered during the investigative process.

This reality necessitates the continuous development of journalists’ capacity to analyse the challenges they face, devise effective strategies to address them, and adapt flexibly to changing conditions. Strengthening these capacities contributes to improving the efficiency and accuracy of investigative work and ensures the achievement of its intended objectives.

Four primary challenges commonly confront investigative journalists in practice: time constraints that limit research depth, ethical constraints that demand strict professional compliance, obstacles related to access to information, and the need for caution when dealing with confidential sources.

First: Time limitations

Time constraints constitute one of the most significant challenges in investigative journalism. The nature of investigative work requires extended periods for comprehensive data collection and analysis. However, media environments often impose strict deadlines driven by accelerated publishing cycles and audience demand for immediate information.

This challenge requires journalists to balance the pursuit of quality with the pressure for speed. In some cases, journalists may be compelled to shorten investigative stages or make rapid analytical decisions, potentially affecting accuracy. Consequently, effective time management and prioritisation become essential, with emphasis placed on the most critical investigative components in order to deliver accurate and reliable information without compromising professional standards or content quality.

Second: Ethical constraints

Ethical considerations represent a fundamental challenge in investigative journalism. Journalists must make sensitive decisions related to privacy, integrity and individual rights. These decisions include protecting confidential sources, avoiding bias and refraining from deceptive information-gathering practices, all of which are essential for maintaining investigative credibility and adherence to professional ethics.

Despite pressures arising from sensitive topics or institutional demands, investigative journalists are required to balance access to information with unwavering commitment to ethical standards. Such commitment safeguards individual rights and affirms the legitimacy of investigative journalism as a responsible practice dedicated to transparency and accountability. Ethical responsibility supersedes institutional obligations and requires adherence to professional codes that define journalistic conduct.

In the Moroccan context, these principles are enshrined in the Charter of Ethics for the Profession of Journalism, (29) which establishes binding standards of professional conduct. In accordance with these standards, investigative journalism does not rely on impersonation or hidden cameras as foundational practices, contrary to some misconceptions. Instead, professional values emphasise credibility, transparency and the use of lawful and ethical methods of information collection, with due respect for rights and privacy. Adherence to these principles enhances both the credibility of investigative outcomes and the role of the press as a responsible oversight institution operating within a clear legal and ethical framework.

Third: Obstacles to accessing information

Access to information constitutes one of the most persistent challenges facing investigative journalists. Legal, administrative or institutional barriers may restrict access to documents or data, sometimes through deliberate obstruction or information blackout. In such cases, journalists may be compelled to rely on alternative sources, including public records, prior studies or informal sources, requiring adaptability and innovative strategies to obtain necessary information.

In principle, the right to access information is a key indicator of human rights conditions within a state, as it is based on the premise that information should be available without justification. Information is defined as data expressed in numerical, textual, visual or audiovisual forms contained in documents, reports, studies, decisions, databases and other records produced or held by public institutions within the scope of their functions. (30)

In Morocco, Article 27 of the Constitution guarantees citizens’ right to access information held by public administrations, elected bodies and institutions performing public service functions, subject only to legal limitations.

Article VI of the Press and Publication Law further affirms journalists’ right to access information from various sources, except in cases involving confidentiality, such as national security, internal or external state security, personal privacy, or the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms. This article also obliges public authorities to provide journalists with information within legally specified timeframes, with penalties imposed on entities that refuse compliance.

A major challenge lies in the effective implementation of Law No. 31.13 on the right of access to information. Although it was adopted after an eight-year ratification process and entered into force on 12 March 2020, practical shortcomings have emerged, prompting calls for amendments aimed at strengthening its effectiveness and enhancing transparency for journalists and citizens alike.

Fourth: Dealing with confidential sources

Engaging with confidential sources is one of the most sensitive challenges in investigative journalism. It requires balancing the obligation to protect the source’s anonymity with the need to ensure the accuracy and reliability of information. This challenge is particularly acute in investigations involving sensitive issues, where disclosure of a source’s identity may pose serious personal or professional risks.

Investigative journalists bear both moral and legal responsibility to protect confidential sources. This obligation necessitates the adoption of strict security measures, such as encryption tools and careful handling of information that could reveal a source’s identity. At the same time, journalists must independently verify information obtained from confidential sources to prevent misinformation or manipulation.

Protecting confidential sources is a cornerstone of investigative ethics, as it fosters trust between journalists and informants and reinforces the credibility of the press as an institution committed to public interest and professional integrity. To manage confidential sources effectively, investigative journalists should adhere to four guiding principles: attributing information transparently to its source when possible, recognising that accounts may differ even among closely involved sources, avoiding reliance on minors as sources, particularly in criminal cases, and prioritising sources with direct relevance to the issue to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness.

Conclusion

This study has provided an in-depth analysis of the intersections between scientific methodologies and investigative journalism, highlighting the methodological steps required to conduct rigorous investigative reporting. The findings demonstrate a strong convergence between scientific research methods and investigative journalism practices, as both rely on problem identification, hypothesis formulation, and strict commitment to accuracy and objectivity. Despite these similarities, investigative journalism retains a degree of methodological flexibility that distinguishes it from academic research, without undermining shared foundations aimed at producing reliable results.

The study emphasises that effective investigative journalism depends on adherence to ethical standards that ensure credibility and protect both sources and subjects, particularly in sensitive investigations. Protecting sources, avoiding manipulation and maintaining objectivity constitute essential pillars for strengthening public trust and reinforcing the role of the press as a responsible oversight institution.

Finally, the study identifies four major challenges confronting investigative journalists, namely time constraints, ethical obligations, barriers to accessing information, and the complexities of managing confidential sources. Addressing these challenges requires adaptability, continuous skill development, and unwavering commitment to professional standards. By overcoming these obstacles, investigative journalism can serve the public interest more effectively, enhance societal awareness, and contribute meaningfully to transparency and accountability.